Definition and Examples of Closed Class Words

In  English grammar,  closed class  refers to the  category of function words—that is, parts of speech (or word classes)—that dont readily accept new members. The closed classes in English include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions. In contrast open class words include  nouns,  lexical verbs,  adjectives, and  adverbs. Examples and Observations [C]losed-class words are those belonging to the grammatical, or function, classes...Function words in English include conjunctions (and, or), articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), and prepositions (to, from, at, with). To take one specific case, consider the word and. The essential feature of the word and is that it functions grammatically to conjoin words and phrases, as seen in the combination of noun phrases the woman and the man. Any change in membership in such a class happens only very slowly (over centuries) and in small increments. Thus, a speaker of English may well encounter dozens of new nouns and verbs during the coming year; but it is extremely unlikely that the English language will acquire a new article (or lose a current one) in the coming year (or even in the speakers lifetime).—Adrian Akmajian, et al., Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT, 2001 Prepositions have gradually expanded their membership somewhat by admitting participles such as including, concerning, but the remaining classes are very resistant to the introduction of new items. This has been noticeable in recent years when attempts have been made to find gender-neutral pronouns.—Angela Downing and Philip Locke, English Grammar: A University Course, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2002 Functions of Closed-Class Words Closed-class words or function words are limited in number and act as markers or guides to the structure of a sentence. The role of articles is to signal nouns. Prepositions mark special relationships between persons, objects, and locations. Conjunctions are connectors that link actors or objects, and specify relationships between clauses in the sentence. Open- and closed-class words occupy certain slots in sentences and set up a frame for interpreting the interrelationships between actors, actions, and objects.—Diane McGuinness, Language Development and Learning to Read. MIT, 2005 Open Class Words Evolve to Closed Class Words The closed classes include pronouns (you, them), modal verbs (could, must), determiners (a, the), prepositions (of, in), and conjunctions (and, but). New members of these classes are not added to the language very often. Instead, they tend to gradually evolve from lexical words in a process called grammaticalization. For example, the lexical verb go means to move (toward a goal). But its progressive form be going (to) has evolved into a grammaticalized prospective (future) marker, as in Shes going to love her gift. The movement meaning of go has been bleached out of the grammaticalized version, and so the going in be going to can be considered to be a function word, rather than a content word. The closed classes represent a more restricted range of meanings, and the meanings of closed-class words tend to be less detailed and less referential than open-class words.—M. Lynne Murphy, Lexical Meaning. Cambridge University Press, 2010

The Fall Of The Roman Empire - 1537 Words

Ancient Rome was an empire so dominant, wealthy and economically- stable which came to a dramatic fall in the period of 250AD- 500AD. Ancient Rome faced unexplained unfortunate events which crumbled the Great Empire from the affluent empire to a impoverished society. For centuries historians have timelessly theorised and analysed many debates and research in relation to the Fall of the Roman Empire. What really caused the predominate Roman Empire to fall? Did Rome fall naturally? Was disease, such as malaria a major contributor to the Fall of the Empire, Was man -made infrastructure a problem during Ancient Roman times? Was the fall a natural event? Was the climate changing causing natural disasters? Maybe, perhaps, all the theories interweaved with each other at the same time causing a catastrophic downfall, defeating the Ancient Roman Empire. Edward Gibbon (Gibbon, 1909, pp 173-174.) quoted, â€Å"If the empire had been afflicted by any recent calamity, by a plague, a famine, or an unsuccessful war; if the Tiber had, or if the Nile had not, risen beyond its banks; if the earth had shaken, or if the temperate order of the seasons had been interrupted, the superstitious Pagans were convinced that the crimes and the impiety of the Christians, who were spared by the excessive lenity of the government, had at length provoked the divine justice.† The theories surrounding the decline of the Roman Empire is a widely- known historical debate. Endless questions have been proposed andShow MoreRelatedFall of the Roman Empire1288 Words   |  6 PagesThe Pax Romana was a two hundred year time period where the Romans had peace and prosperity under Augustus. The Roman empire started to decline at the end of the prevail of the last five emperors, Marcus Aurelius in 161-180 A.D. The rulers in the next century had no idea how to deal with the problems the empire was having. There was many reasons to the fall of the Roman Empire but three stood out the most. The preliminary reason was the economy begins to decline. The alternative reasoning was RomeRead MoreFall of the Roman Empire758 Words   |  4 PagesTaylor Davino Professor Horsley HIS 126 3 March 2010 The fall of the Roman Empire Political, economic and social aspects were all involved in the fall of the Roman Empire. In 395 A.D., Rome was divided into two empires, with one capital in Rome and the other in Constantinople. During that time, the western Roman Empire was being invaded by barbarian tribes from the North. In 410, the Visigoth tribe succeeded in conquering the western capital in Rome. In 476, the western EmperorRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1419 Words   |  6 PagesThe Roman Empire was a powerful governing body of extensive political and social structures throughout western civilization. How did this empire fall and were internal factories responsible? Slow occurrences in succession to one another led to the fall of the empire rather than one single event. The fall of the Roman Empire was a combination of both internal and external pressures, not just one, leading up to the complete decay of the cities—Rome and Constantinople. However, one could argue how oneRead MoreThe Fall Of Ro man Empire1185 Words   |  5 PagesThe Fall of Roman Empire Roman Empire was considered as one of the most influential and dominant Empire in the history that has ever existed. â€Å"The Roman Empire at its zenith in the period of the Principate (roughly, 27 BC to AD 235) covered vast tracts of three continents, Europe, Africa, and Asia† (Garnsey). It was an ancient, modern Empire, and it supported anyone who made discoveries and technological improvements. The Empire was the strongest governing body in the Mediterranean. If the RomanRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1440 Words   |  6 PagesSophie Loren Plays a Leading Role in the Fall of the Roman Empire? The reason for the fall of the Roman Empire is a controversial topic under much historical debate. How did such a great empire, known for being one of the largest that lasted over a millennium, fall? The Roman Empire transitioned from a republic to an empire in 31 BCE. Augustus Caesar was the first emperor. He created harmony in Rome, but not in calendars as he added August as the eighth month to follow July, which was named afterRead MoreFall of Roman Empire1175 Words   |  5 PagesThe Fall of the Roman Empire The Ancient Roman empire was one of the most prominent and successful societies of its time period. By the end of their reign, the Romans had conquered almost all of the Mediterranean including parts of present day Europe, Asia, and Africa. Rome was at its strongest during the rule of Augustus Caesar, this time was known as the â€Å"Pax Romana† or Roman peace. It wasn’t until later, when Emperor Trajan took over in about 98 C.E. that the Empire reached its peak. AfterRead MoreThe Fall of the Roman Empire609 Words   |  3 PagesThe Fall of the Roman Empire There are adherents to single factors, but more people think Rome fell because of a combination of such factors as Christianity, and economy, and military problems. Even the rise of Islam is proposed as the reason for Romes fall, by some who think the Fall of Rome happened at Constantinople in the 15th Century. Most people think it occurred during the fifth century, after the western division of the empire. There were several reasons for the fall of the Roman EmpireRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1438 Words   |  6 PagesThe Roman Empire was one of the most powerful empires in the history of mankind. In 476 CE Odoacer defeated Romulus Augustus to capture Rome; most historians agree that this was the official end of the Western Roman Empire. There is much debate on how exactly Rome declined and eventually fell. The fall of Rome was a long process that took place over many centuries. There are five main schools of thought on why Rome fell. First, Christianity, offered by Edward Gibbons; He suggests that ChristianityRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1495 Words   |  6 PagesFor a long period of time, the debate about the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire has been a popular topic amongst historians. Most of these historians look at the issue from a standpoint that accepts that there were most likely several causes. The main root of the issue is whether or not these causes were internal or external. Some historians even go more in depth and try to hypothesize what the internal or external causes were. In fact, Adrian Goldsworthy and Peter Heather do just this whenRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1430 Words   |  6 Pages While the fall of the Roman Empire is well known, the exact causes of why it fell can be difficult to pinpoint. Many historians believe that Rome s downfall was due to poor leadership, weakened economics, or perhaps a combination of the two along with other seemingly unrelated factors. However, there is a string of evidence suggesting that there were three main components that took place to bring about the fall of the Roman Empire. These determinant attributes did not happen all at once, and there

Food Habits free essay sample

Being packed with energy these food items help in repairing the damage caused by stress. * It has been generally observed that around the time of examinations children tend to suffer from stress related diarrhoea. So it is absolutely essential that they are served less oily, less spicy and easy to digest foodstuffs. Children preparing for their crucial examinations must increase their intake of liquids/fluids e: g milk, juices, and soups. However, processed/packed soups are an absolutely no-no. Despite the manufacturers tall claims, such soups are lacking in the essential nutrients and moreover contain synthetic preservatives, which youngsters could conveniently do without. Fresh mixed fruit/vegetable juices, especially carrot juice, garnished with suitable spices are indeed a boon for the examinees. * Tea/ coffee is a beverage that students love to consume because of their stimulating properties. However drinking coffee/tea on an empty stomach early in the morning is bound to prove disastrous. We will write a custom essay sample on Food Habits or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Similarly gulping down mugs of black tea /coffee in order to stay up the whole night, will do more harm than good. This habit gives rise to ailments like nausea, hypertension, insomnia among other. things. * Students normally experience hunger pangs in between meals. During such times, the parents must put their foot down and convince/persuade the children to have plenty o fresh fruits instead of junk food like burgers, pizzas, chips, samosas, bread pakoras, chhloay -bhaturay and lots more. Instead fries and snacks prepared at home would be a good substitute as the standards of hygiene and quality of materials can be ascertained. * A word of caution. Everyday ones comes across hordes of ads highlighting the near miraculous powers of several drugs/mixtures, claiming to enhance memory / retentive power, increase concentration and ameliorate overall performance in the exams. Without any offence meant to anybody, in case you plan to try these out, you will be doing so at your own risk. Unfortunately the efficacy stuffs such as these have not yet been scientifically authenticated

Principles of Effective Teaching free essay sample

In my research I learned that there is no simple definition for principles of effective teaching. As we all know learning is a challenge and change in each individual. In an effort to summarize principles of learning a handful of ideas come to mind. Communication, Interaction, Diversity Recognition, Program Knowledge, Teaching Techniques, Student Exercises, and Appropriate Breaks. Learning is more likely to occur if there is a realistic and attainable learning goal. Teaching principles also are effective when information is presented at the appropriate level for the students. Students must be capable of learning the information with respect to the material presented and the program objective. Learning most definitely occurs more easily when the material matches the wants, needs, or aspirations of the organization. When delivering the material via a clear communication method, we must relate the material taught and how it affects the trainees of the organization or how it will help the organization accomplish its goal. We will write a custom essay sample on Principles of Effective Teaching or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Trainees must see the relevance of the information being delivered and how they will apply it in their current roles. In essence when communicating in the training setting learning occurs best when practice is as close as possible to real-world phases, situations and resolutions. Interactions in training programs are essential for not only the trainers benefit but the trainee. Simulations are excellent learning techniques, but cannot replace day to day experiences. Trainees appreciate feedback on their performance as soon as possible. It gives them a sense of accomplishment and boosts their learning horizons. Interesting how trainees learn more efficiently if they are required to â€Å"look up† the information rather than being given the answer. If learning materials are too easy, trainees will not perceive the activity seriously. If learning materials are too complex, trainees will give up before trying the activity. Diversity recognition in organizations have spent untold millions on multi-cultural awareness and diversity training. (Aguinis) The goal is for organizations to value and celebrate differences as well as similarities, thereby delivering a more harmonious and productive work environment. Enlightened trainers know that diversity within the business and global workforce will continue to grow into the 21st century and that this reality must be acknowledged effectively in order for organizations to compete, survive, and thrive in this innovating and competitive market. Recently human resource managers, organizational researchers and trainers have been developing criteria to help determine what programs work and what programs dont. One approach in diversity training is to take the pulse of an organization before, during, and after the training programs. Checkering) Program knowledge comes from confidence. Preparing your own slides or paper materials forces you to master your subject program. Your knowledge improves to the degree that you approach the presentation in a visual display less argumentative and with every word and chart on that visual display the trainer will give the opportunity to support the material presented. Your knowledge also increases to the extent tha t the trainer takes the time to reorganize the presentation so that the material is delivered in a learning manner. Trainers however need to be prepared that the audience may have questions or objections. Nothing disarms an objection better than a trainer who smiles in a natural manner and states: Im glad that you have asked that that questions or have advised me of your concern! (Parker) Knowledge also increases the extent that the trainer is proud of the material and visual displays. Be proud of the fact that you have been asked to present this program. It is obvious that you have been identified for you skills and knowledge, that you have what the organization requires for the delivery of it purpose, need, or what’s. After preparing a well-argued, good-looking program, the trainer will look forward to the presentation because it will provide as much information as possible to share the visual displays with the trainees. Believing in the message and being proud of the presentation will help identify the trainer’s enthusiasm and the presentation will be off to a roaring start and ultimately in a well execute finish! Teaching techniques are also an important process. Arriving early and testing out all the equipment is essential. Locate the room lighting switches and identify the rooms seating arrangements. Arrange your program materials before the trainees arrive and familiarize yourself with the environment layout. Know how to smoothly work the room. Check sound levels and know where there are blind spots for the trainees. If you are using a wireless microphone, find out its range and all hot spots in the room are. These can cause loud feedback if you talk while standing at a distance. When delivering the program the trainer must interpret the information to the trainees in an enthusiastic, conversational upbeat tone rather than reading them which is a dull sound of boredom for all present. Welcome your trainees as they enter the room. This delivers a comfort zone for the trainer and your audience. By introducing yourself to your trainees, you become a likable, vulnerable element rather than an authority figure to be challenged or disliked. Never delay the start of your training program. Start on time! This shows you are serious about your program and so should all the trainees involved. Pay no attention if a trainee walks out during your program with a bored or annoyed look on his/her faces. The trainee may have just found out they were in the wrong session or they may be just unhappy with your presentation of the material. It is possible to predict the success of your presentation as determined by the acceptance of your ideas or trainees interactions from the analysis of the trainees and the response during your presentation of the program. (Parker) Trainees need to actively participate in any program as often as possible. The reasoning behind this technique is that employers constantly want their employees to be able to work in groups. Yet, employees often complain about working in such groups, partly because it is difficult to get along. One way to get the trainees to participate more in the program is to give mini team assignments that they have to complete in a couple of minutes. This allows for a leader selection, sub leader selection, followers and bottom line participants selection. With this process the trainees will apply this grouping technique and apply it in the real life working environment. With these techniques the trainer can help the audience develop a skill for group participation and offering a way to integrate as a whole. With these changing times many organizations find themselves having to restructure and over lapping job functions in order to keep from letting personnel go. Breaks are necessary! Keep in mind that many trainees might not work in a single environment on a daily basis. It is important to recognize when the audience starts to lose interest in the presentation. Signs of distraction and need for a break can come in many forms. Restlessness, fidgeting, sighing, side conversations and a decrease in participation are all indicators a break may be needed. It is essential that these signs are not taken personal and as an experienced trainer that you revise your program schedule if need be. Allow the break to either start earlier of extend itself slightly depending in the atmosphere perceived. Trainers usually benefit from these breaks because the audience returns reenergized and ready for business. Food, drinks or basic restroom breaks can make a negative situation into a positive one. Following the break the trainer can then proceed to execute the presentation or training and deliver the organizations goal and purpose. In conclusion there are many training techniques and principals behind effective teaching. It is up to the trainer to study, plan, prepare and deliver the program required. The ultimate goal is to ascertain that the audience has benefited from the materials and training presented and the organization has positive results from such. If this is not accomplished the trainer is in the obligation the reevaluate his/her techniques and implement a different teaching style if required.

Terry pratchett free essay sample

The man with the three lives All witches are selfish, the Queen had said. But Tiffanfs Third Thoughts said: Then turn selfishness Into a weapon! Make all things yours! Make other lives and dreams and hopes yours! Protect them! Save them! Bring them into the sheepfold! Walk the gale for them! Keep away the wolf! My dreams! My brother! My family! My land! My world! How dare you try to take these things, because they are mine! † Quote by Terry Pratchett, The Wee Free Men (Discworld, 30) (The famous author Sir Terry Pratchett) Terence David John lso called Terry Pratchett is an English author. He was born in 1948 April 28 in Beaconsfield, England. Terry Pratchett Is an only child. His Discworld series Is the most famous books of all the books he had published. Terry Pratchett began to write when he was 13-years old and his first book was published when Terry Pratchett was In the age of the 23. We will write a custom essay sample on Terry pratchett or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Terry Pratchett is educated as a Journalist. Though his work with interviewing celebrity could he publishes books because he got to know some people In the publishing business. In his everyday life he writes, goes walks, sits at his omputer, he say. Terry Pratchett is known for wearing long pointed black hats. His style has been described as more that of urban cowboy than city genl . In 2008 Terry Pratchett was given the title Sr. Terry Pratchetts daughter Is also a writer. Terry Pratchett writes fantasy novels and in 1996 he was the most top selling author in the 0K. Terry Pratchett Is now the second most read author In the 0K. HIS books are translated to 37 different languages. In the U. S Terry Pratchett is number seventh in the list over not American most read author. Terry Pratchett writes two books a year and he had written 43 books in the Discworld series until now. When Terry Pratchett was young his dream was to be an astronomer one day and it is maybe why he has created his own worldview/unlverse in his Discworld books the Earth has a shape as a disc and four elephants are standing under the earth to lift it. The four elephants stand on a big turtle that swims in the ocean that is under the turtle. It something who Is described In the first book of the Discworld series The Colour of Magic, from 1983. Terry Pratchett has also invented his own words that he uses in his Discworld books. Terry is not writes not only literature for adults but also for young and children. He writes also ballads. 3 The Discworld books are about a world where the Impossible can be possible and where supernatural beings takes place and new words are invented. It is like two worlds meet, All of this is told In a completely different way with new methods of writing in which the author describes something that you cannot imagine but still you get an illustration In the head by what he means and it is very strange.

A critical reading of the western, referring to Jim Kitses Notes on the Western

A critical reading of the western, referring to Jim Kitses Notes on the Western By 1960, the production of Westerns in Hollywood had entered a decline from which it never recovered. Although for a time in the mid sixties the supply was augmented from an unexpected source, as the Italians found new ways to inject life into a dying genre. This was witnessed in the "spaghetti" westerns of Sergio Leone such as The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly(1968), but this proved to be a short lived phenomenon, and by the seventies, Hollywood was struggling to produce a bare score of westerns per year. In the eighties, with production declining still, the death of the genre was produced on all sides. By the nineties, the western girded itself for one last stand, witnessed in the frontier western of Dances With Wolves(1991) and the revenge western Unforgiven(1995), which director Clint Eastwood attempted by sheer effort to get the genre back on its feet. However the predicted full scale revival failed to materialise.English: A Japanese poster for Akira Kurosawa's Se...We can specula te on the reasons for this decline. Edward Buscombe, who has written profusely on the western, believes the decline of the studio system resulted in the decline of the staple Western form, the B film, during the 1950s. More recently he goes on to say, the change in production patterns means now catering for the changing demographics of the cinema audience, the majority of whom are now too young for a genre that always venerated age. The younger audience is attracted to other genres- horror, science fiction- that offer many traditional satisfactions of the western without the dated historical baggage that now seems increasingly irrelevant in the 21st century. The changing attitudes of society, especially in terms of sexuality and ethnic difference, have left the classic Western marooned in its nineteenth century values.The death of the Western genre mirrors the...

Opinion Essay on 'The Interest Communities' Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Opinion on 'The Interest Communities' - Essay Example Webber believes that a person’s work environment and the people within their work community is not their place-community, as it is only a place in which they work. Where they live and interact with people outside of work, however, is their place-community. Though the article was written in 1964, Webber’s insights in regards to neighbourhoods and neighbourhood change can be applicable to the present. Webber states that communication between people, outside of the work environment, depends solely on the proximity between where the person is and where they want to go. He goes on to say that while proximity is important, accessibility to the place is another vital factor. In the 1960s, due to the lack of technology that we have now, the only way people could really communicate with friends or attend clubs or meetings would be to drive to them. There were no methods such as e-mail, text messaging, cell phones, or the perks of having the Internet, so they would have to depend on places that were close to them and within driving range. Even though this generation has every possible method of communication, many people still depend and rely on the places that are closest to them. The closer a place is and the easier it is to get there, the more likely a person will go there than elsewhere. Furthermore, as in the 1960s, in this day and age, people also depend on what they have close to them in regards to friends and companions – the closer a neighbor is, the better the relationship could be. According the Webber, neighbourhoods change according to the times and the growth of businesses. Though people prefer to live closer to their place of employment, and the majority of them move to be closer to their businesses, their place-community remains to be the place they spend their time outside of work. The main people of communication are not the people they work with, but with the people that they associate with outside of